Intercession of Christ — Christ’s priestly office consists of these two parts, (1) the offering up of himself as a sacrifice, and (2) making continual intercession for us.

When on earth he made intercession for his people (Luke 23:34; John 17:20; Heb. 5:7); but now he exercises this function of his priesthood in heaven, where he is said to appear in the presence of God for us (Heb. 9:12,24).

His advocacy with the Father for his people rests on the basis of his own all-perfect sacrifice. Thus he pleads for and obtains the fulfilment of all the promises of the everlasting covenant (1 John 2:1; John 17:24; Heb. 7:25). He can be “touched with the feeling of our infirmities,” and is both a merciful and a faithful high priest (Heb. 2:17, 18; 4:15, 16). This intercession is an essential part of his mediatorial work. Through him we have “access” to the Father (John 14:6; Eph. 2:18; 3:12). “The communion of his people with the Father will ever be sustained through him as mediatorial Priest” (Ps. 110:4; Rev. 7:17). 1.

Intercession of the Spirit — (Rom. 8:26, 27; John 14:26). “Christ is a royal Priest (Zech. 6:13). From the same throne, as King, he dispenses his Spirit to all the objects of his care, while as Priest he intercedes for them. The Spirit acts for him, taking only of his things. They both act with one consent, Christ as principal, the Spirit as his agent. Christ intercedes for us, without us, as our advocate in heaven, according to the provisions of the everlasting covenant. The Holy Spirit works upon our minds and hearts, enlightening and quickening, and thus determining our desires ‘according to the will of God,’ as our advocate within us. The work of the one is complementary to that of the other, and together they form a complete whole.”, Hodge’s Outlines of Theology.

PRAYER — is converse with God; the intercourse of the soul with God, not in contemplation or meditation, but in direct address to him. Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional or constant, ejaculatory or formal. It is a “beseeching the Lord” (Ex. 32:11); “pouring out the soul before the Lord” (1 Sam. 1:15); “praying and crying to heaven” (2 Chr. 32:20); “seeking unto God and making supplication” (Job 8:5); “drawing near to God” (Ps. 73:28); “bowing the knees” (Eph. 3:14).
Prayer presupposes a belief in the personality of God, his ability and willingness to hold intercourse with us, his personal control of all things and of all his creatures and all their actions.

Acceptable prayer must be sincere (Heb. 10:22), offered with reverence and godly fear, with a humble sense of our own insignificance as creatures and of our own unworthiness as sinners, with earnest importunity, and with unhesitating submission to the divine will. Prayer must also be offered in the faith that God is, and is the hearer and answerer of prayer, and that he will fulfil his word, “Ask, and ye shall receive” (Matt. 7:7, 8; 21:22; Mark 11:24; John 14:13, 14), and in the name of Christ (16:23, 24; 15:16; Eph. 2:18; 5:20; Col. 3:17; 1 Pet. 2:5).

Prayer is of different kinds, secret (Matt. 6:6); social, as family prayers, and in social worship; and public, in the service of the sanctuary.

Intercessory prayer is enjoined (Num. 6:23; Job 42:8; Isa. 62:6; Ps. 122:6; 1 Tim. 2:1; James 5:14), and there are many instances on record of answers having been given to such prayers, e.g., of Abraham (Gen. 17:18, 20; 18:23–32; 20:7, 17, 18), of Moses for Pharaoh (Ex. 8:12, 13, 30, 31; Ex. 9:33), for the Israelites (Ex. 17:11, 13; 32:11–14, 31–34; Num. 21:7, 8; Deut. 9:18, 19, 25), for Miriam (Num. 12:13), for Aaron (Deut. 9:20), of Samuel (1 Sam. 7:5–12), of Solomon (1 Kings 8; 2 Chr. 6), Elijah (1 Kings 17:20–23), Elisha (2 Kings 4:33–36), Isaiah (2 Kings 19), Jeremiah (42:2–10), Peter (Acts 9:40), the church (12:5–12), Paul (28:8).

No rules are anywhere in Scripture laid down for the manner of prayer or the attitude to be assumed by the suppliant. There is mention made of kneeling in prayer (1 Kings 8:54; 2 Chr. 6:13; Ps. 95:6; Isa. 45:23; Luke 22:41; Acts 7:60; 9:40; Eph. 3:14, etc.); of bowing and falling prostrate (Gen. 24:26, 52; Ex. 4:31; 12:27; Matt. 26:39; Mark 14:35, etc.); of spreading out the hands (1 Kings 8:22, 38, 54; Ps. 28:2; 63:4; 88:9; 1 Tim. 2:8, etc.); and of standing (1 Sam. 1:26; 1 Kings 8:14, 55; 2 Chr. 20:9; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11, 13).

If we except the “Lord’s Prayer” (Matt. 6:9–13), which is, however, rather a model or pattern of prayer than a set prayer to be offered up, we have no special form of prayer for general use given us in Scripture.

Prayer is frequently enjoined in Scripture (Ex. 22:23, 27; 1 Kings 3:5; 2 Chr. 7:14; Ps. 37:4; Isa. 55:6; Joel 2:32; Ezek. 36:37, etc.), and we have very many testimonies that it has been answered (Ps. 3:4; 4:1; 6:8; 18:6; 28:6; 30:2; 34:4; 118:5; James 5:16–18, etc.).

“Abraham’s servant prayed to God, and God directed him to the person who should be wife to his master’s son and heir (Gen. 24:10–20).

“Jacob prayed to God, and God inclined the heart of his irritated brother, so that they met in peace and friendship (Gen. 32:24–30; 33:1–4).
Easton, M. G., M. A. D. D., Easton’s Bible Dictionary, (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) 1996.

“Samson prayed to God, and God showed him a well where he quenched his burning thirst, and so lived to judge Israel (Judg. 15:18–20).

“David prayed, and God defeated the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15:31; 16:20–23; 17:14–23).

“Daniel prayed, and God enabled him both to tell Nebuchadnezzar his dream and to give the interpretation of it (Dan. 2:16–23).

“Nehemiah prayed, and God inclined the heart of the king of Persia to grant him leave of absence to visit and rebuild Jerusalem (Neh. 1:11; 2:1–6).

“Esther and Mordecai prayed, and God defeated the purpose of Haman, and saved the Jews from destruction (Esther 4:15–17; 6:7, 8).

“The believers in Jerusalem prayed, and God opened the prison doors and set Peter at liberty, when Herod had resolved upon his death (Acts 12:1–12).

“Paul prayed that the thorn in the flesh might be removed, and his prayer brought a large increase of spiritual strength, while the thorn perhaps remained (2 Cor. 12:7–10).

“Prayer is like the dove that Noah sent forth, which blessed him not only when it returned with an olive-leaf in its mouth, but when it never returned at all.”, Robinson’s Job. 1.

PRAYER.

I. Introduction

In the Bible prayer is worship that includes all the attitudes of the human spirit in its approach to God. The Christian worships God when he adores, confesses, praises and supplicates him in prayer. This highest activity of which the human spirit is capable may also be thought of as communion with God, so long as due emphasis is laid upon divine initiative. A man prays because God has already touched his spirit. Prayer in the Bible is not a ‘natural response’ (see Jn. 4:24). ‘That which is born of the flesh is flesh.‘ Consequently, the Lord does not ‘hear’ every prayer (Is. 1:15; 29:13). The biblical doctrine of prayer emphasizes the character of God, the necessity of a man’s being in saving or covenant relation with him, and his entering fully into all the privileges and obligations of that relation with God.

II. In the Old Testament

Köhler (Old Testament Theology, 1957, p. 251, n. 153) finds ‘about eighty-five original prayers in the OT. In addition there are about sixty whole psalms and fourteen parts of psalms which may be called prayers.‘

a. The patriarchal period

In the patriarchal period prayer is calling upon the name of the Lord (Gn. 4:26; 12:8; 21:33); i.e. the sacred name is used in invocation or appeal. There is, consequently, an unmistakable directness and familiarity in prayer (Gn. 15:2ff.; 18:23ff.; 24:12-14, 26f.). Prayer is also closely connected with sacrifice (Gn. 13:4; 26:25; 28:20-22), although this association appears in later periods too. This offering of prayer in a context of sacrifice suggests a union of man’s will with God’s will, an abandonment and submission of the self to God. This is especially so in Jacob’s conjoining prayer with a vow to the Lord. The vow, itself a prayer, promises service and faithfulness if the blessing sought is granted (Gn. 28:20ff.).

b. The pre-exilic period

1. In this period one of the main emphases in prayer is intercession; although this was also a factor in patriarchal times (Gn. 18:22ff.). Intercession was especially prominent in the prayers of Moses (Ex. 32:11-13, 31f.; 33:12-16; 34:9; Nu. 11:11-15; 14:13-19; 21:7; Dt. 9:18-21; 10:10). Dt. 30 is also largely a prayer of intercession, as are also the prayers of Aaron (Nu. 6:22-27), Samuel (1 Sa. 7:5-13; 12:19, 23), Solomon (1 Ki. 8:22-53), and Hezekiah (2 Ki. 19:14-19). The inference seems to be that intercession was confined to outstanding personalities who, by virtue of their position assigned to them by God as prophets, priests and kings, had peculiar power in prayer as mediators between God and men. But the Lord always remained free to execute his will; hence we hear of unsuccessful intercession (Gn. 18:17ff.; Ex. 32:30-35). In Am. 7:1-6 ‘the Lord repented’ concerning a certain course of action in answer to the prophet’s intercession, and in the next verses (7:7-8:2) Israel is to be led away captive after all. Jeremiah is even forbidden to intercede with God (Je. 7:16; 11:14; 14:11). On the other hand, success attended the intercession of Lot (Gn. 19:17-23), Abraham (Gn. 20:17), Moses (Ex. 9:27-33; Nu. 12:9ff.), and Job (Jb. 42:8, 10). It is the strongly personal relation with God in which those mediators stood that underlies these intercessory prayers.

2. It is surprising that among all the legal enactments of the Pentateuch there is nothing about prayer apart from Dt. 26:1-15. Even here it is formulae for worship rather than prayer that are being emphasized. In vv. 5-11 there is thanksgiving, and in vv. 13-14 there is a profession of past obedience, but only in v. 15 is there supplication. However, we are probably right in assuming that sacrifice would often be offered with prayer (Ps. 55:14), and where it was not it might be reproved (Ps. 50:7-15). On the other hand, the almost total absence of prayer in those parts of the Pentateuch where sacrifice is regulated suggests that sacrifice without prayer was fairly common.

3. Prayer must have been indispensable in the ministry of the prophets. The very reception of the revelatory Word from God involved the prophet in a prayerful relation with Yahweh. Indeed, it might well have been that prayer was essential to the prophet’s receiving the Word (Is. 6:5ff.; 37:1-4; Je. 11:20-23; 12:1-6; 42:1ff.). The prophetic vision came to Daniel while he was at prayer (Dn. 9:20ff.). On occasion the Lord kept the prophet waiting for a considerable time in prayer (Hab. 2:1-3). We know from Jeremiah’s writings that while prayer was the essential condition of, and reality in, the prophet’s experience and ministry, it was often a tempestuous exercise of the spirit (18:19-23; 20:7-18), as well as a sweet fellowship with God (1:4ff.; 4:10; 10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9, 19-22; 15:15-18; 16:19; 17:12ff.).

4. In the Psalms there is a blending of pattern and spontaneity in prayer. Alongside the more formal ‘sanctuary’ prayers (e.g. 24:7-10; 100; 150) there are personal prayers for pardon (51), communion (63), protection (57), healing (6), vindication (109) and prayers that are full of praise (103). Sacrifice and prayer also blend in the psalms (54:6; 66:13ff.).

c. The exilic period

During the Exile the important factor in religion for the Jews was the emergence of the synagogue. The Jerusalem Temple was in ruins, and altar rites and sacrifices could not be performed in unclean Babylon. A Jew was now no longer one who had been born into the community, and was residing in it, but rather one who chose to be a Jew. The centre of the religious community was the synagogue, and among the accepted religious obligations such as circumcision, fasting and sabbath observance, prayer was important. This was inevitable because each little community in exile now depended upon the synagogue service where the Word was read and expounded, and prayers were offered. And after the return to Jerusalem, just as the Temple was not allowed to displace the synagogue, nor the priest the scribe, nor sacrifice the living Word, so ritual did not displace prayer. Both in Temple and synagogue, in priestly ritual and scribal exposition, the devout worshipper now sought the face of Yahweh, his personal presence (Pss. 100:2; 63:1ff.), and received his blessing in terms of the light of his countenance shining upon him (Ps. 80:3, 7, 19).

d. The post-exilic period

After the Exile there was undoubtedly a framework of devotion, but within it freedom was secured for the individual. This is exemplified in Ezra and Nehemiah, who, while insisting upon cult and law, and upon ritual and sacrifice and, therefore, upon the social aspects of worship, yet emphasized also the spiritual factor in devotion (Ezr. 7:27; 8:22f.; Ne. 2:4; 4:4, 9). Their prayers are also instructive (Ezr. 9:6-15; Ne. 1:5-11; 9:5-38; cf. also Dn. 9:4-19). We may also note here that concerning posture in prayer there were no fixed rules (Ps. 28:2; 1 Sa. 1:26; 1 Ki. 8:54; Ezr. 9:5; 1 Ki. 18:42; La. 3:41; Dn. 9:3 and v. 20 where we should read ‘towards’ instead of ‘for’). So also in the matter of hours for prayer: prayer was effective at any time, as well as at the stated hours (Ps. 55:17; Dn. 6:10). In the post-exilic period, then, we find a blending of orderliness of Temple ritual, the simplicity of the synagogue meeting and the spontaneity of personal devotion.
Prayer being what it is, it would be manifestly impossible to systematize it completely. Within the OT there are certainly patterns for prayer but no binding regulations governing either its contents or its ritual. Mechanical prayer, prayer hemmed in by coercive prescriptions, did not come until towards the close of the intertestamental period, as the Gospels make clear. Then, alas, both through Temple sacrifice in Jerusalem, and in the diaspora through the praise, prayer and exposition of the synagogue service, and through circumcision, sabbath observance, tithes, fasting and supererogatory deeds, worshippers in both Temple and synagogue sought to merit acceptance with God.

III. In the New Testament

There are certain clearly-defined areas where the NT teaching on prayer is set forth, but the fountain-head from which all its instruction in prayer flows is Christ’s own doctrine and practice.

a. The Gospels

1. As to Jesus’ doctrine of prayer, this is set out principally in certain of his parables. In the parable of the friend who borrowed three loaves at midnight (Lk. 11:5-8) the Lord inculcates importunity in prayer; and the ground on which the confidence in importunate prayer is built is the Father’s generosity (Mt. 7:7-11). The parable of the unjust judge (Lk. 18:1-8) calls for tenacity in prayer, which includes persistence as well as continuity. God’s delays in answering prayer are due not to indifference but to love that desires to develop and deepen faith which is finally vindicated. In the parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee (Lk. 18:10-14) Christ insists on humility and penitence in prayer, and warns against a sense of self-superiority.

Self-humiliation in prayer means acceptance with God, self-exaltation in prayer hides God’s face. Christ calls for charity in prayer in the parable of the unjust servant (Mt. 18:21-35). It is prayer offered by a forgiving spirit that God answers. Simplicity in prayer is taught in Mt. 6:5f.; 23:14; Mk. 12:38-40; Lk. 20:47. Prayer must be purged of all pretence. It should spring from simplicity of heart and motive, and express itself in simplicity of speech and petition. The Lord also urged intensity in prayer (cf. Mk. 13:33; 14:38; Mt. 26:41). Here watchfulness and faith combine in sleepless vigilance. Again, in Mt. 18:19f. unity in prayer is emphasized. If a group of Christians who have the mind of Christ pray in the Holy Spirit their prayers will be effectual. But prayer must also be expectant (Mk. 11:24). Prayer that is an experiment achieves little; prayer which is the sphere where faith operates in surrender to God’s will achieves much (Mk. 9:23).

2. On objectives in prayer Jesus had singularly little to say. Doubtless he was content to let the Holy Spirit prompt his disciples in prayer. What aims he referred to in prayer are to be found in Mk. 9:28f.; Mt. 5:44; 6:11, 13; 9:36ff.; Lk. 11:13.

3. As to method in prayer, the Lord had two important things to teach. First, prayer is now to be offered to him, as it was offered to him when he was on earth (e.g. Mt. 8:2; 9:18). As he insisted on faith then (Mk. 9:23), and tested sincerity (Mt. 9:27-31), and uncovered ignorance (Mt. 20:20-22) and sinful presumption (Mt. 14:27-31), in those who petitioned him, so he does today in the experience of those who offer prayer to him. Secondly, prayer is now also to be offered in the name of Christ (Jn. 14:13; 15:16; 16:23f.), through whom we have access to the Father. To pray in the name of Christ is to pray as Christ himself prayed, and to pray to the Father as the Son has made him known to us: and for Jesus the true focus in prayer was the Father’s will. Here is the basic characteristic of Christian prayer: a new access to the Father which Christ secures for the Christian, and prayer in harmony with the Father’s will because offered in Christ’s name.

4. As to the Lord’s practice of prayer, it is well known that he prayed in secret (Lk. 5:15f.; 6:12); in times of spiritual conflict (Jn. 12:20-28; Lk. 22:39-46); and on the cross (Mt. 27:46; Lk. 23:46). In his prayers he offered thanksgiving (Lk. 10:21; Jn. 6:11; 11:41; Mt. 26:27), sought guidance (Lk. 6:12ff.), interceded (Jn. 17:6-19, 20-26; Lk. 22:31-34; Mk. 10:16; Lk. 23:34) and communed with the Father (Lk. 9:28ff.). The burden of his highpriest prayer in Jn. 17 is the unity of the church.

5. Since the *Lord’s Prayer is treated more fully elsewhere, it will suffice to point out that after the invocation (Mt. 6:9b) there follow six petitions (9c-13b), of which the first three have reference to God’s name, kingdom and will, and the last three to man’s need of bread, forgiveness and victory: the Prayer then closes with a doxology (13c) which contains a threefold declaration concerning God’s kingdom, power and glory. It is ‘like this’ that Christians are bidden to pray.

b. The Acts of the Apostles

The Acts is an excellent link between the Gospels and the Epistles, because in Acts the apostolic church puts into effect our Lord’s teaching on prayer. The church was born in the atmosphere of prayer (1:4). In answer to prayer the Spirit was poured out upon her (1:4; 2:4). Prayer continued to be the church’s native air (2:42; 6:4, 6). There remained in the church’s thinking a close connection between prayer and the Spirit’s presence and power (4:31). In times of crisis the church had recourse to prayer (4:23ff.; 12:5, 12). Throughout the Acts the church leaders emerge as men of prayer (9:40; 10:9; 16:25; 28:8) who urge the Christians to pray with them (20:28, 36; 21:5).

c. The Pauline Epistles

It is significant that immediately after Christ revealed himself to Paul on the Damascus road it is said of Paul, ‘Behold, he is praying’ (Acts 9:11). Probably for the first time Paul discovered what prayer really was, so profound was the change in his heart which conversion had effected. From that moment he was a man of prayer. In prayer the Lord spoke to him (Acts 22:17f.). Prayer was thanksgiving, intercession, the realization of God’s presence (cf. 1 Thes. 1:2f.; Eph. 1:16ff.). He found that the Holy Spirit assisted him in prayer as he sought to know and do God’s will (Rom. 8:14, 26). In his experience there was a close connection between prayer and the Christian’s intelligence (1 Cor. 14:14-19). Prayer was absolutely essential for the Christian (Rom. 12:12). The Christian’s armour (Eph. 6:13-17) included prayer which Paul describes as ‘all prayer’, to be offered at ‘all seasons’, with ‘all perseverance’, for ‘all saints’ (v. 18). And Paul practised what he preached (Rom. 1:9; Eph. 1:16; 1 Thes. 1:2); hence his insistence upon prayer when writing to his fellow-believers (Phil. 4:6; Col. 4:2).

In his Epistles Paul is constantly breaking out into prayer, and it is instructive to glance at some of his prayers because of their content.

1. In Rom. 1:8-12 he pours out his heart to God in thanksgiving (v. 8), insists upon serving Christ with his spirit (v. 9a), intercedes for his friends in Rome (v. 9b), expresses his desire to impart to them a spiritual gift (vv. 10f.), and declares that he too is depending upon them for spiritual uplift (v. 12).

2. In Eph. 1:15-19 Paul again thanks God for his converts (vv. 15f.), and prays that they may receive the Spirit through whom comes knowledge of God and illumination of heart (vv. 17-18a), in order that they may know the hope of God’s calling, the wealth of God’s inheritance, and the greatness of God’s power which had been demonstrated in Christ’s resurrection (vv. 18b-19).

3. Again, in Eph. 3:14-18 the apostle pleads with the Father (vv. 14f.) for his fellow-Christians that they might be increasingly conscious of God’s power (v. 16), to the end that Christ might indwell them, and that they might be rooted in love (v. 17), that each together, being perfected, might be filled with the fullness of God (vv. 18f.). Both of these ‘Ephesian’ prayers are well summed up in Paul’s threefold desire that Christians should receive knowledge and power issuing in the love of Christ, through which as individuals and a group they should achieve perfection.

4. In Col. 1:9ff. Paul again prays that the believers should know God’s will through spiritual wisdom and understanding (v.9), that practice might agree with profession (v. 10), that they might have power for their practice (v. 11), and be thankful for their immense privilege and position in the Lord Jesus (vv. 12f.).
But perhaps Paul’s greatest contribution to our understanding of Christian prayer is in establishing its connection with the Holy Spirit. Prayer is in fact a gift of the Spirit (1 Cor. 14:14-16). The believer prays ‘in the Spirit’ (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20); hence prayer is a co-operation between God and the believer in that it is presented to the Father, in the name of the Son, through the inspiration of the indwelling Holy Spirit.

Hebrews, James and 1 John

The Epistle to the Hebrews makes a significant contribution to an understanding of Christian prayer. 4:14-16 shows why prayer is possible: it is possible because we have a great High Priest who is both human and divine, because he is now in the heavenly place and because of what he is now doing there. When we pray it is to receive mercy and find grace. The reference to the Lord’s prayer life in 5:7-10 really teaches what prayer is: Christ’s ‘prayers’ and ‘supplications’ were ‘offered up’ to God, and in this spiritual service he ‘learned obedience’ and therefore ‘was heard’. In 10:19-25 the emphasis is upon corporate prayer, and the demands and motives which it involves. The place of prayer is described in 6:19.

The Epistle of James has three significant passages on prayer. Prayer in perplexity is dealt with in 1:5-8; correct motives in prayer are underlined in 4:1-3; and the significance of prayer in time of sickness is made clear in 5:13-18.

In his first Epistle, John points the way to boldness and efficacy in prayer (3:21f.), while in 5:14-16 he establishes the relation between prayer and the will of God, and shows that efficacy in prayer is especially relevant to intercession, but that situations do arise where prayer is powerless.

IV. Conclusion

The heart of the biblical doctrine of prayer is well expressed by B. F. Westcott: ‘True prayer—the prayer that must be answered—is the personal recognition and acceptance of the divine will (Jn. 14:7; cf. Mk. 11:24). It follows that the hearing of prayer which teaches obedience is not so much the granting of a specific petition, which is assumed by the petitioner to be the way to the end desired, but the assurance that what is granted does most effectively lead to the end. Thus we are taught that Christ learned that every detail of His life and passion contributed to the accomplishment of the work which He came to fulfil, and so He was most perfectly ‘heard’. In this sense He was ‘heard for his godly fear’.‘
Bibliography. H. Trevor Hughes, Prophetic Prayer, 1947; F. Heiler, Prayer, 1932; J. G. S. S. Thomson, The Praying Christ, 1959; Ludwig Köhler, Old Testament Theology, 1957; Th. C. Vriezen, An Outline of Old Testament Theology, 1958; H. Schönweiss, C. Brown, G. T. D. Angel, NIDNTT 2, pp. 855-886; H. Greeven et al., TDNT 2, pp. 40-41, 685-687, 775-808; 3, pp. 296-297; 5, pp. 773-799; 6, pp. 758-766; 8, pp. 244-245. 2.

WORSHIP — homage rendered to God which it is sinful (idolatry) to render to any created being (Ex. 34:14; Isa. 2:8). Such worship was refused by Peter (Acts 10:25,26) and by an angel (Rev. 22:8,9). 1.

WORSHIP. The vocabulary of worship in the Bible is very extensive, but the essential concept in Scripture is ‘service’. Heb. Ôab_oÆd_aÆ and Gk. latreia both originally signified the labour of slaves or hired servants. And in order to offer this ‘worship’ to God his servants must prostrate themselves—Heb. hisûtahawaÆ or Gk. proskyneoµ—and thus manifest reverential fear and adoring awe and wonder.

In the OT there are instances of individual worship (Gn. 24:26f.; Ex. 33:9-34:8). But the emphasis is upon worship in the congregation (Ps. 42:4; 1 Ch. 29:20). In tabernacle and Temple worship ritual was prominent. Apart from the daily morning and evening sacrifices, the celebration of Passover and the observance of the Day of Atonement would be highlights in the Jewish religious calendar. The ritual acts of shedding of blood, presenting incense, pronouncing the priestly blessing, etc., would tend to emphasize the ceremonial to the detriment of the spiritual aspects of worship, and even tend to introduce a sense of tension or conflict between the two attitudes (Pss. 40:6; 50:7-15; Mi. 6:6-8). But many in Israel would be able to take the public praise (e.g. Pss. 93; 95-100) and prayers (e.g. Pss. 60; 79; 80), and use them to express their love and gratitude to God (Dt. 11:13) in a real act of inward spiritual worship.

This highly-developed public worship offered in the tabernacle and Temple is a far cry from earlier times when the Patriarchs believed that the Lord could be worshipped wherever he had chosen to reveal himself. But that public worship in the Temple was a spiritual reality is clear from the fact that when the sanctuary was destroyed, and the exiles found themselves in Babylon, worship remained a necessity, and to meet this need the synagogue service, consisting of (1) the ShemaÔ, (2) prayers, (3) Scripture readings and (4) exposition, was ‘created’. But later in the second Temple the daily services, the sabbath, the annual festivals and fasts, and the praises of the hymn-book (book of Psalms) of this second Temple ensured that worship remained a vital factor in Jewish national life.

In the NT Temple and synagogue worship are again found. Christ participated in both, but he always inculcated the worship that is the love of the heart towards a heavenly Father. In his teaching the approach to God through ritual and priestly mediation is not merely unimportant, it is now unnecessary. At last ‘worship’ is true Ôab_oÆd_aÆ or latreia, a service offered to God not only in terms of temple worship but of service to one’s fellows (Lk. 10:25ff.; Mt. 5:23f.; Jn. 4:20-24; Jas. 1:27). At the beginning, however, the church did not abandon Temple worship; and probably Christians continued to attend the synagogue services too. And when the break between Judaism and the church finally came Christian worship may have been modelled on the synagogue service.
The great contributory factor in the break away from the Jewish sabbath, Temple, ritual, etc., was the bitter antagonism of the Jews against the church. But so far as the NT is concerned our notions of Christian worship are very vague. Clearly the main day of worship was the Lord’s Day (Acts 20:7), although we do hear of daily services at the beginning (Acts 2:46). There is no mention in the NT of services commemorating the Lord’s resurrection and the Spirit’s coming at Pentecost. Worship would be conducted in believers’ homes. In such circumstances official ministrants would be unnecessary. Simplicity would be the keynote of these house-church worship services, consisting for the most part of *praise (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16), *prayer, reading from the Scriptures and exposition. In the church at Corinth we hear of ‘speaking in tongues’ (1 Cor. 14). The love-feast, followed by the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:23-28), were also common features of Christian worship. But the emphasis throughout would be upon the Spirit, and the inner love and devotion of the heart.

Bibliography. J. V. Bartlett in ERE: R. Martin-Achard in J.-J. von Allmen (ed.), Vocabulary of the Bible, 1958, pp. 471-474; R. Abba, Principles of Christian Worship, 1957; R. P. Martin, Worship in the Early Church2, 1974.

1. Easton, M. G., M. A. D. D., Easton’s Bible Dictionary, (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) 1996.

2. The New Bible Dictionary, (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.) 1962.